This Article Abstract Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Alert me to new issues of the journal Add to Saved Citations Download to citation manager Request Permissions Request Reprints Add to My Marked Citations Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Citing Articles via Scopus Google Scholar Articles by Hobbs, P. Search for Related Content Social Bookmarking                         What's this?

Surging ahead to a new way forward: the metaphorical foreshadowing of a policy shift

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES, USA, p37954{at}earthlink.net

The role of metaphor in political discourse has received significant attention in recent years. Expanding on the cognitive theory of metaphor developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), scholars in the fields of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis have examined politicians' use of metaphorical concepts to justify policies and define events. The metaphors examined in these studies frequently have attained the status of idioms; they consequently pass unnoticed while retaining their ability to frame perspectives. However, political discourse does not limit itself to such lexicalized metaphors, but makes use of new metaphors (or new uses of existing metaphors) as well. Such uses are specifically designed to attract attention, which may become problematic if the metaphor is rejected, resulting in a classic `failure to launch'. This article examines such a case. Through an analysis of the metaphors used to describe President Bush's military plan to increase US forces in Iraq, I explore the mechanisms by which the meanings of novel metaphors are negotiated in the political arena, and demonstrate that, although their vivid imagery can generate persuasive force in political language, this effect may backfire when they encounter resistance.

Key Words: idiom • Iraq War • metaphor • neologism • political discourse

References

• American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research (2007) `Iraq: A Turning Point — With Reports from Iraq from Senators John McCain and Joseph Lieberman', available online at: http://www.aei.org/include/event_print.asp?eventID=1146, accessed 15 March 2007.
• Baker, J.A. III and Hamilton, L. (co-chairs), Eagleburger, L.S., Jordon, V.E. Jr., Meese, E. III, O'Connor, S.D., Panetta, L.E., Perry, W.J., Robb, C.S. and Simpson, A.K. (2006) `The Iraq Study Group Report', available online at: http://www.usip.org/isg/iraq_study_group_report/report/1206/index.html, accessed 8 March 2007.
• Baker, G.P. (2002) `Quotation Marks in Philosophical Investigations Part I' , Language & Communication 22: 37—68.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
• Baker, P. and Wright, R. (2006) ` Bush Appears Cool to Key Points Of Report on Iraq: President Talks of Forming "New Strategy "', Washington Post, 8 December, p. A1 .
• Baldwin, H.W. (1964) `War Game Opens in Mojave Dese rt: "Escalation" Theory Being Studied in Maneuvers', New York Times, 17 May.
• Barnes, J. (2006) ` Pentagon's Plan: More US Troops in Iraq: Boosting Presence and Aid, and an Anti-Sadr Offensive, Carry Risks but Offer the Best Path to Victory, Military Officials Say ', Los Angeles Times, 13 December.
• Bellantoni, C. (2007) ` Obama Joins '08 Hopefuls in Call against Troop Surge; Wants Course Change ', The Washington Times, 1 January, p. 8 .
• Billig, M. and Macmillan. K. (2005) `Metaphor, Idiom and Ideology: The Search for "No Smoking Guns" across Time' , Discourse & Society 16: 459—80.[Abstract]
• Blommaert, J. (2005) Discourse: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Bush, G.W. (2002) `State of the Union Address', 29 January, available online at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129—11.html , accessed 19 March 2007.
• Bush, G.W. (2007) `Address to the Nation', 10 January, available online at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070110—7.html , accessed 13 January 2007.
• Campbell, D. (1992) Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
• Chilton, P. (1988) Orwellian Language and the Media. London: Pluto Press.
• Chilton, P. and Ilyin, M. (1993) `Metaphor in Political Discourse: The Case of the "Common European House"' , Discourse & Society 4: 7—31.[Abstract]
• Chilton, P. and Lakoff, G. (1995) `Foreign Policy by Metaphor', in C. Schäffner and A.L. Wenden (eds) Language and Peace, pp. 37—69. Aldershot /Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Publishing.
• Clausewitz, C. von (1832/1962) On War, vols I—III, trans. Colonel J.J. Graham. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• De Saussure, L. (2005) `Manipulation and Cognitive Pragmatics', in L. De Saussure and P. Schultz (eds) Manipulation and Ideologies in the Twentieth Century, pp. 113—45. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• De Saussure, L. and Schultz, P. (eds) (2005) Manipulation and Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Dreazen, Y.J. and Jaffe, G. (2007) `Calibrating a Troop " Surge ": If More Soldiers Go to Iraq, How Long Should They Stay?', The Wall Street Journal, 2 January, p. A6.
• Editor (1967) ` Escalation by Whatever Name ', New York Times, 28 February.
• Editor (1964) ` Escalation in Vietnam ', New York Times, 15 July.
• Fairclough, N. (1989) Language and Power. London: Longman.
• Fairclough, N. (1995) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London and New York: Longman.
• Hellsten, I. (1997) `Door to Europe or Outpost towards Russia? Political Metaphors in Finnish EU Journalism', in J. Koivisto and E. Lauk (eds) Journalism at the Crossroads: Perspectives on Research, pp. 121—41. Tartu , Finland: Tartu University Press .
• Hellsten, I. (2000) `Dolly: Scientific Breakthrough or Frankenstein's Monster? Journalistic and Scientific Metaphors of Cloning' , Metaphor and Symbol 15: 213—21.[CrossRef]
• Hobbes, T. (1651/1985) Leviathan. London: Penguin.
• Hobbs, P. (in press) ` It's Not What You Say but How You Say It: The Role of Per-sonality and Identity in Trial Success ', Critical Discourse Studies.
• Hook, J. (2007) ` Throwing their Stance in the Ring ', Los Angeles Times, 11 January, p. A14 .
• Kagan, F.W. (2006a) ` We Can Put More Forces in Iraq... And They Would Make a Difference ', The Weekly Standard, 4 December. Also available online at: http://www.aei.org/include/pub_print.asp?pubID=25189 (posted 27 November 2006), accessed 15 March 2007.
• Kagan, F.W. (2006b) ` U.S. Cannot Accept Defeat: New Strategy to Win Would Show President's Wisdom, Not Stubbornness ', USA Today, 21 December. Also available online at: http:www.aei.org/include/pub_print.asp?pubID=25341 (posted 21 December 2006), accessed 15 March 2007.
• Kagan, F.W. (2006c) ` Send More Troops to Baghdad and We'll Have a Fighting Chance ', Sunday Times ( London ), 24 December. Also available online at: http://www./aei.org/include/pub_print.asp?pubID=25351 (posted 26 December 2006 ), accessed 15 March 2007.
• Kagan, F.W. (2006d) `Choosing Victory: A Plan for Success in Iraq — Phase I Report', available online at: http://www.aei.org/docLib20070105_ChoosingVictoryFINALcc.pdf (posted 14 December 2006; formally released and presented at AEI 5 January 2007).
• Kagan, F.W. and Keane, J. (2006) ` The Right Type of "Surge"; Any Troop Increase Must Be Large and Lasting ', Washington Post, 27 December. Also available online at: http://www.aei.org/include/pub_print.asp?pubID=25356 (posted 27 December 2006), accessed 15 March 2007.
• Kahn, H. (1965) On Escalation: Metaphors and Scenarios. New York: Praeger.
• Kennedy, V. (2000) `Intended Tropes and Unintended Metatropes in Reporting on the War in Kosovo' , Metaphor and Symbol 15: 253—65.[CrossRef]
• Kian, S. (2007) ` Substance or Sound-bytes? ', The Cavalier Daily, 1 November, available online at: http://www.cavalierdaily.com/CVarticle.asp?ID=28280&pid=1505, accessed 7 April 2007.
• Krock, A. (1967) ` Doubt and Dissent: The Credibility Gap Raises the Risk of Strained Relations with Business ', New York Times, 9 January, p. 49 .
• Lakoff, G. (1991) `Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf' , Peace Research 23(2—3): 25—32.
• Lakoff, G. (1996) Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Lakoff, G. (2004) Don't Think of an Elephant! Know Your Values and Frame the Debate. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing .
• Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
• Levey, N.N. (2007) ` Iraq Buildup Draws New Challenge: GOP's Sen. Warner is an Author of the Latest Resolution Opposing Bush's Plan to Send 21,500 More Troops ', Los Angeles Times, 23 January.
• Levey, N.N. and Gaouette, N. (2007) ` Democrats United Against Troop Buildup ', Los Angeles Times, 11 January, p. A14 .
• Marshall, S.L.A. (1965) ` Global Game Called Risk-Taking, [Review of] On Escalation: Metaphors and Scenarios, by Herman Kahn , 308 pp. New York: Frederick A. Praeger. $6.95', New York Times, 30 May.
• McElhaney, J.W. (2005) McElhaney's Trial Notebook, 4th edn. Chicago, IL: American Bar Association.
• McManus, D. and Reynolds, M. (2007) ` Bush Aides Lay Groundwork for Iraq Surge ', Los Angeles Times, 7 January, p. A1 .
• Mohr, C. (1969) ` Hanoi's Top General Says Vietnamization Will Be Tragedy for U.S. and Saigon ', New York Times, 12 December, p. 5 .
• Musolff, A. (2004) Metaphor and Political Discourse: Analogical Reasoning in Debates about Europe. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Orwell, G. (1946/1961) `Politics and the English Language ', in Collected Essays, pp. 337—51. London: Secker & Warburg.
• Pelosi, N., Reid, H., Hoyer, S. and Durbin, R. (2007) ` Escalating Our Military Involvement in Iraq Sends Precisely the Wrong Message ', press release available online at: http://www.democrats.senate.gov/newsroom/record.cfm?id=267 442&, accessed 5 April 2007.
• Predelli, S. (2003) `Scare Quotes and Their Relation to Other Semantic Issues' , Linguistics and Philosophy 26: 1—28.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
• Rayner, J.D. (1980) `The Uses of Ideological Language', in D.J. Manning (ed.) The Form of Ideology, pp. 90—112. London: George Allen & Unwin.
• Reynolds, M. (2007) ` Lawmakers Get Private Surge Pitch: President Bush Meets with Groups of Senators at the White House to Drum Up Support Ahead of Announcing his Plan ', Los Angeles Times, 9 January, p. A7 .
• Reynolds, M. and Levey, N.N. (2007) ` Bush Prepares to Ask for More Troops: His Plan is Said to Focus on Ending Sectarian Violence and Increasing Security. Foes See It as a Dangerous Escalation ', Los Angeles Times, 10 January, p. A9 .
• Reynolds, M., Spiegel, P. and Fiore, F. (2007) ` Bush Commits 21,500 More Troops ', Los Angeles Times, 11 January, p. A1 .
• Richter, P. and Barnes, J.E. (2007) ` Bush's Plan for Iraq Comes Under Fire From Both Parties: Gates and Rice Face Sharp Questioning in Congress as Lawmakers Demand to Know When Troops Can Come Home ', Los Angeles Times, 12 January, p. A1 .
• Santa Ana, O. (1999) `"Like an Animal I was Treated": Anti-immigrant Metaphor in US Public Discourse' , Discourse & Society 10: 191—224.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• Schubert, G. (2006) ` Letter to the Editor ', Los Angeles Times, 14 December.
• Semple, R.B. Jr (1969) `Nixon to Disclose Further Pullout in "2 or 3 Weeks": Tells News Parley That Size of Troop Cut Will Depend on Changes in Field; 1969 Target in Sight; 100,000 Due to Come Home — He Says Vietnamization May Disappoint Some' , New York Times, 9 December, p. 1 .
• Serrano Cabezas, M.J. and Sanz Moreno, P.J. (1997) ` La Présentation des Néologismes ', Babel 43: 97—105.
• Spiegel, P. and Reynolds, M. (2007) ` Troop Surge Can't Be Brief, Backers Insist: They Want 18 Months at Minimum. Democrats, and Some Republicans, Resist a Hard Line ', Los Angeles Times, 6 January, p. A1 .
• Thomas, G.M. Jr (2004) `Building the Buzz in the Hive Mind' , Journal of Consumer Behaviour 4: 64—72.[CrossRef]
• TVparty.com (2007) `Classic TV Commercial Jingles', available online at: www.tvparty.com/comjing./html, accessed 26 March 2007.
• UPI [United Press International] (1969) `Thieu Opposes Using Term "Vietnamization"' , New York Times, 16 November, p. 2 .
• United States Institute of Peace (2007) `Iraq Study Group', available online at: http://www.usip.org/isg/index/html, accessed 8 March 2007.
• Van der Valk, I. (2003) ` Right-wing Parliamentary Discourse on Immigration in France ', Discourse & Society 14: 309—48.[Abstract]
• Van Dijk, T.A. (1993) `Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis' , Discourse & Society 4: 249—83.[Abstract]
• Van Dijk, T.A. (2006) `Discourse and Manipulation' , Discourse & Society 17: 359—83.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• Wicker, T. (1965) ` Capital is Tense: But President Asserts Nation Still Opposes Widening of War ', New York Times, 8 February.
• Wicker, T. (1968) ` The Inevitable Credibility Gap ', New York Times, 12 August, p. 30 .
• Wodak, R. (1995) `Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis ', in J. Verschueren, J.-O. Östman and J. Blommaert (eds) Handbook of Pragmatics, pp. 204—10. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Wodak, R. (2001) `The Discourse-Historical Approach', in R. Wodak and M. Meyer (eds) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis, pp. 63—94. London: Sage.
• Zeleny, J. and Luo, M. (2007) ` The Struggle for Iraq: A Divided House Denounces Plan for More Troops ', New York Times, 17 February, p. A1 .
• Zinken, J. (2003) `Ideological Imagination: Intertextual and Correlational Metaphors in Political Discourse' , Discourse & Society 14: 507—23.[Abstract]
• Zinken, J., Hellsten, I. and Nerlich, B. (2003) `What is "Cultural" about Conceptual Metaphors?' , International Journal of Communication 13: 5—29.

Discourse & Communication, Vol. 2, No. 1, 29-56 (2008)
DOI: 10.1177/1750481307085576


CiteULike    Complore    Connotea    Del.icio.us    Digg    Reddit    Technorati    Twitter    What's this?

This Article Abstract Free Full Text (Free PDF) Free Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Alert me to new issues of the journal Add to Saved Citations Download to citation manager Request Permissions Request Reprints Add to My Marked Citations Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Citing Articles via Scopus Google Scholar Articles by Hobbs, P. Search for Related Content Social Bookmarking                         What's this?